A Brief History of Everything

Everything begins with the cosmos itself. In seven steps the universe expands from its first instant, forges the elements inside stars, and gathers gas and dust into a Sun, an Earth, and a Moon—until the planet cools enough for oceans to gather and the story of life can begin.

1. 01The universe began about 13.8 billion years ago.
2. 02Stars formed and forged the first heavy elements.
3. 03Galaxies assembled over billions of years.
4. 04Our Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
5. 05Earth formed from a disk of gas and dust.
6. 06The Moon likely formed after a giant impact.
7. 07Earth’s surface cooled and oceans appeared.

On the young Earth, matter learns to copy itself. Simple life emerges and learns to harvest sunlight, slowly filling the air with oxygen. Complex and then multicellular life follows; plants and animals move onto land; and reptiles, dinosaurs, and early mammals each take their turn—until a giant asteroid resets the board.

8. 08The first simple life emerged.
9. 09Life learned to harvest energy from sunlight.
10. 10Oxygen slowly transformed Earth’s atmosphere.
11. 11Complex cells evolved.
12. 12Multicellular life appeared.
13. 13Marine ecosystems flourished.
14. 14Plants colonized land.
15. 15Animals followed onto land.
16. 16Insects diversified.
17. 17Dinosaurs dominated Earth.
18. 18Mammals remained mostly small.
19. 19A giant asteroid ended the age of dinosaurs.
20. 20Mammals rapidly diversified.

An ape stands up and begins to wonder. Upright walking frees the hands, brains enlarge, and stone tools grow sharper; fire and language transform survival and cooperation. Modern humans emerge in Africa and spread across the globe, reaching Australia and the Americas, and leave behind the first art—the mark of symbolic thought.

21. 21Primates evolved.
22. 22Early human ancestors appeared in Africa.
23. 23Walking upright freed human hands.
24. 24Larger brains evolved gradually.
25. 25Stone tools became increasingly sophisticated.
26. 26Fire changed cooking and survival.
27. 27Language transformed cooperation.
28. 28Humans spread across Africa.
29. 29Modern humans emerged.
30. 30Humans migrated across the globe.
31. 31Neanderthals disappeared after overlapping with modern humans.
32. 32Humans reached Australia.
33. 33Humans entered the Americas.
34. 34Hunter-gatherers developed rich cultures.
35. 35Art expressed symbolic thought.

Surplus, cities, and the written word. Agriculture arises independently in several regions; villages grow into cities; and governments, writing, and law appear to organize larger societies. Trade, mathematics, astronomy, and religion bind distant peoples together as the first empires expand by conquest—and ideas travel alongside goods.

36. 36Agriculture emerged independently in several regions.
37. 37Permanent villages formed.
38. 38Population increased dramatically.
39. 39Domesticated animals reshaped society.
40. 40Food surpluses enabled specialization.
41. 41Cities emerged.
42. 42Governments formed to organize large societies.
43. 43Writing preserved knowledge.
44. 44Laws became codified.
45. 45Trade connected distant peoples.
46. 46Mathematics advanced civilization.
47. 47Astronomy improved calendars and navigation.
48. 48Religion united communities and explained existence.
49. 49Empires expanded through conquest.
50. 50Ideas traveled alongside goods.

Ideas travel further than armies. Iron, philosophy, and early democracy reshape societies while major religions and scientific observation spread across continents. Empires rise and fall, universities preserve knowledge, and the compass, gunpowder, paper, and printing set the stage for ocean voyages that link the continents—bringing global trade and colonization, and, for many Indigenous peoples, devastating disease.

51. 51Iron transformed warfare and farming.
52. 52Philosophy questioned human nature.
53. 53Democracy emerged in some societies.
54. 54Major world religions spread across continents.
55. 55Scientific observation slowly expanded.
56. 56Roads connected vast empires.
57. 57The fall of empires reshaped civilizations.
58. 58New kingdoms arose.
59. 59Universities preserved and expanded knowledge.
60. 60Innovations spread through cultural exchange.
61. 61The compass expanded navigation.
62. 62Gunpowder changed warfare.
63. 63Paper transformed communication.
64. 64Printing multiplied ideas.
65. 65Ocean exploration connected continents.
66. 66The Americas entered global exchange networks.
67. 67Colonization reshaped populations and economies.
68. 68Diseases devastated many Indigenous peoples.
69. 69Global trade accelerated.

Reason, machines, and revolution. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment recast how people understand the world and their rights; revolutions challenge monarchies and democracies slowly expand, even as slavery underpins many economies. Industry, railroads, electricity, and modern medicine remake daily life—followed by two world wars, nuclear weapons, the Cold War, decolonization, and the search for international cooperation.

70. 70Slavery became central to many economies.
71. 71The Scientific Revolution transformed understanding.
72. 72The Enlightenment emphasized reason and rights.
73. 73Revolutions challenged monarchies.
74. 74Democracies gradually expanded.
75. 75The Industrial Revolution mechanized production.
76. 76Railroads shrank distances.
77. 77Electricity transformed daily life.
78. 78Modern medicine extended life expectancy.
79. 79Public education expanded literacy.
80. 80Global capitalism accelerated economic growth.
81. 81Nationalism reshaped politics.
82. 82World War I transformed international relations.
83. 83Totalitarian regimes emerged.
84. 84World War II reshaped the global order.
85. 85Nuclear weapons changed warfare forever.
86. 86The Cold War divided the world.
87. 87Space exploration expanded human horizons.
88. 88Decolonization created many new nations.
89. 89Global institutions sought international cooperation.

Everyone, everywhere, all at once. Computers, the internet, and mobile phones fuse the world into a single network as globalization deepens interdependence. Climate change becomes a defining challenge, biotechnology and renewable energy accelerate, and artificial intelligence enters everyday life—leaving a history that remains unfinished, with each generation called on to write the next chapter.

90. 90Computers began the digital age.
91. 91The internet connected billions.
92. 92Mobile technology put computing in every pocket.
93. 93Globalization intensified economic interdependence.
94. 94Climate change became a defining global challenge.
95. 95Biotechnology accelerated medical breakthroughs.
96. 96Renewable energy rapidly expanded.
97. 97Artificial intelligence entered everyday life.
98. 98Knowledge became humanity’s most valuable resource.
99. 99The future increasingly depends on global cooperation and responsible innovation.
100. 100History remains unfinished, and every generation writes the next chapter.